8.例如“暗中监视:‘我没有想过要躲起来……我没做错什么事’”载于guardian(london),june 10,2013。
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9.审判之后,任何人都可以要求查看法院文件(但几乎没人会这么做),少数案件除外(比如涉及未成年人的诉讼)。
第二章 向公众公开:头条审判
1.令人吃惊的是,对这些审判进行整体研究的文献数量极少,只有robert a.ferguson,the trial in american life(chicago:university of chicago press,2007),以及richard l.fox and robert w.van sickel,tabloid just:criminal jus-t in an age of media frenzy(boulder:lynne rienner,2001)。还可参见robert hariman,“performing the laws:popular trials and social knowledge,” in popular trials:rhetoric,mass media,and the law,ed.robert hariman,17-30(tuscaloosa:university of alabama press,1990),17。在此还要提及mary s.hartman,victorian murderesses(new york:schocken books,1976),此书的副书名也值得引用:“十三位被控犯下滔天大罪的可敬英法女性的真实历史”(a true history of thirteen respectable french and english women accused of unspeakable crimes)。媒体对于审判的报道方式也很有研究价值,参见fox and van sickel,tabloid just,以及ray surette,media,crime,and criminal just:images,realities,and policies,3d ed(belmont,calif.:thomson/wadsworth,2007)。当然,如果把讨论某起具体头条审判(比如丽兹·波顿案、萨科-万泽提案,等等)的书籍和论文都加到一起,最终形成的书单肯定长得惊人。
2.william haltom and michael mccann,distorting the law:politics,media,and the litigation crisis(chicago:university of chicago press,2004),185-226.
3.参见john denvir,ed.,legal reelism:movies as legal texts(urbana:uni-versity of illinois press,1996).关于法律和大众文化,参见michael freeman,ed.,law and popular culture(oxford:oxford university press,2005);stewart ma-caulay,“images of law in everyday life,” law & society review 21(1987):185;lawrence m.friedman,“law,lawyers,and popular culture,” yale law journal 98(1989):1,579。
4.重罪和轻罪的界限,在每个州都可能不一样。谋杀、强奸和持械抢劫肯定是重罪。加利福尼亚刑法典第十七节规定,重罪的定义是“可被判处死刑或监禁于州监狱的罪行”。其他的犯罪均为“轻罪,被归入轻微违法行为者除外”。轻重违法行为是非常微小的犯罪,通常以罚款告终。
5.讨论辩诉交易的文献数量极多。研究诉辩交易起源的书籍则有lawrence m.friedman,crime and punishment in american history(new york:basic books,1993),390-393;george fisher,plea bargaining's triumph:a history of plea bar-gaining in america(stanford:stanford university press,2003)。
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6.marc galanter,“the vanishing trial:an examination of trials and related matters in federal and state courts,” journal of empirical legal studies 1(2004):259;see also robert p.burns,the death of the american trial(chicago:university of chicago press,2009).
7.参见fisher,plea bargaining's triumph,97,120。我还查阅过佛罗里达州莱昂郡19世纪80年代的记录簿,此地的审判更为短促草率。
8.lawrence m.friedman,“the day before trials vanished,” journal of empiri-cal legal studies 1(2004):689.
9.有很多关于辛普森案的书籍;比如jan schuetz and lin s.lilley,eds.,the o.j.simpson trials:rhetoric,media,and the law(carbondale:southern illi-nois university press,1999);darnell m.hunt,o.j.simpson facts and fictions:news rituals in the construction of reality(cambridge:cambridge university press,1999);jeffrey toobin,the run of his life:the people v.o.j.simpson(new york:random house,1996)。
10.see friedman,crime and punishment in american history,36-41.
11.records and files of the quarterly courts of essex county,massachusetts,vol.viii(1680-1683)(1921),86-87.
12.laws of new hampshire,vol.1,province period:1679-1702(manchester,nh:john b.clarke,1904),676.
13.leon devalinger,jr.,etc.,court records of kent county,delaware,1680-1705(washington,d.c.:american historical association,1959),167.
14.laws and liberties of massachusetts(cambridge,mass.:harvard university press,1929【originally published in 1648】),3.
15.records and files of the quarterly court of essex county,massachusetts,vol.ii(salem:essex institute,1912),48.
16.daniel a.cohen,pillars of salt,monuments of grace:new england crime literature and the origins of american popular culture,1674-1860(amherst:univer-sity of massachusetts press,1993),20.
17.cohen,pillars of salt,monuments of grace,21.
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18.irene quenzler brown and richard d.brown,the hanging of ephraim wheeler(cambridge,mass.:belknap,2003),249.
19.brown and brown,the hanging of ephraim wheeler,63.
20.louis p.masur,rites of execution:capital punishment and the tranormation of american culture,1776-1865(new york:oxford university press,1989),95,96.
21.但显而易见,偶尔还会有类似的行刑演讲。1888年,塞弗·戴维斯在芝加哥被执行死刑。牧师面向聚集在一起的公众宣读了塞弗的“讯息”。塞弗表示自己深悔于“做过的所有错事……我的歉疚之情发自内心深处”,还自称“已经为上帝所原谅”,并告诫“所有与我交好的青年,以我为戒,永行正道”。这些话是否为塞弗本人所写,尚存在疑问。参见elizabeth dale,the rule of jus-t:the people of chicago versus zephyr davis(columbus:ohio state university press,2001),96。
22.masur,rites of execution,94.
23.see lawrence m.friedman and robert v.percival,the roots of just:crime and punishment in alameda county,california,1870-1910(chapel hill:uni-versity of north carolina press,1983),305.
24.elizabeth dale,the chicago trunk murder(dekalb:northern illinois univer-sity press,2011),73.
25.adam hirsch,the rise of the penitentiary:prisons and punishment in early america(new haven:yale university press,1992);friedman,crime and punish-ment in american history,77-82.
26.stuart banner,the death penalty:an american history(cambridge,mass.:harvard university press,2003),194-196.
27.laws of pennsylvania(1913),529.
28.见凯姆勒单方诉讼案【in re kemmler,136 u.s.436(1890)】。最高法院支持这一死刑执行方式,认为其“符合人道”,并未构成“异常残忍的惩罚”,因此并不为宪法所禁止。
29.“far worse than hanging,”new york times,august 7,1890.
30.ibid.
31.national pol gazette,april 8,1899。帕莱丝夫人因妒意大发而杀害继女伊达,还企图谋害自己的丈夫,之后自杀未遂。
32.george c.wright,racial violence in kentucky,1865-1940(baton rouge:louisiana state university press,1990),71.
33.见leon f.litwack,trouble in mind:black southerners in the age of jim crow(new york:knopf,1998);关于私刑更为生动的描述,可参考sharon f.davies,rising road:a true tale of love,race,and religion in america(oxford:oxford university press,2010),153-154。
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34.litwack,trouble in mind,289.
35.1915年,里奥·法兰克于乔治亚州被私刑处死时,“成群结队的人涌向悬挂着死者的橡树,他的身体在风中摇摆,喉咙上血红的伤口清晰可见。想拿点纪念品的人把死者睡衣的袖子扯成碎片,还把绳子剪成一段段带走”。但一位当地法官阻止了他们继续损毁和焚烧尸体。参见leonard dinnerstein,the leo frank case(athens:university of georgia press,2008)。
36.关于治安运动的文献数量相当可观。想要了解治安运动及类似运动的记录,可参见richard maxwell brown,strain of violence:historical studies of ameri-can violence and vigilantism(oxford:oxford university press,1975)。有趣的是,犹他州没有太多治安行动的传统;在后期圣徒教派首领的影响下,犹他州的社会组织相当严密;换言之,其社会结构和西部其他地区差异较大。
37.thomas a.dimsdale,the vigilantes of montana,or,popular just in the rocky mountains(reprint,norman:university of oklahoma press,1953),194-205.
38.dimsdale,vigilantes of montana,76-78.
39.dimsdale,vigilantes of montana,13.
40.robert p.ingalls,urban vigilantes in the new south:tampa,1882-1936(knoxville:university of tennessee press,1988).
41.roger d.mcgrath,gunfighters,highwaymen,and vigilantes:violence on the frontier(berkeley:university of california press,1984),234-242.
42.mcgrath,gunfighters,highwaymen,and vigilantes,242.
43.参见brown,strain of violence,108。在政界,类似的成功案例并非绝无仅有。威尔伯·费斯克·桑德斯参加过蒙大拿的治安运动,后于1889年被选为蒙大拿的参议员。参见brown,strain of violence,112。
44.因为南方白人不肯妥协,多年来反私刑运动都以失败告终。在20世纪,权力巨大的南方国会议员屡次挫败国会中的动议;他们以州权为借口,虽然虚假,但确实有效。
45.dimsdale,vigilantes of montana,14.休伯特·班克罗夫特关于旧金山治安运动委员会的经典记述也同样有价值,见hubert bancroft,popular tribunals(san francisco:history company,1887)。对于治安运动总体上最为完整的记录是布朗做出的,见brown,strain of violence。
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46.“mystic numbers,” san francisco chronicle,december 3,1894.
47.参见michael feldberg,the turbulent era:riot and disorder in jacksonian america(new york:oxford university press,1980),34-35。这些暴动的“政治性”,在于它们是“各个群体争夺资源和特权激励……的社会过程”(feldberg,the turbulent era,34)。
48.参见feldberg,the turbulent era,54-55。“表达型”暴动是“集体暴力”,用以加强群体内部团结,或者向外部世界表现出群体的团结性。“娱乐型”暴动是年轻人借以“发泄……身体和情绪能量”的“出口”。feldberg还认为,有些暴动和骚乱可算是“有组织的团队体育运动”。在这个时代,由志愿者组成的消防队在不救火的时候,似乎也很喜欢互相打上一架。
49.feldberg,the turbulent era,74.
50.见elizabeth dale,criminal just in the united states,1789-1939(cam-bridge:cambridge university press,2011)。戴尔认为,研究文献忽略了最广泛意义上的“通俗正义”,对刑事司法历史进行研究时,应当更为注重此类现象。
51.关于塔尔萨暴动的问题,可参见james s.hirsch,riot and remembrance:the tulsa race war and its legacy(boston:houghton mifflin,2002),及scott ells-worth,death in a promised land:the tulsa race riot of 1921(baton rouge:louisi-ana state university press,1982)。底特律暴动也是媒体头版头条的题材,参见“army rules detroit;23 die,” chicago tribune,june 22,1943;robert young,“paratroopers fight riot;restore law,order in detroit,lbj says,” chicago trib-une,july 25,1967。关于此次暴动,还可参见sidney fine,violence in the model city:the cavanagh administration,race relations,and the detroit riot of 1967(ann arbor:university of michigan press,1989)。
52.les ledbetter,“san francisco tense as violence follows murder trial,”new york times,may 23,1979。怀特在入狱一段时间后释放,随即自杀;参见robert lindsey,“dan white,killer of san francisco mayor,a suicide”,new york times,october 22,1985。
53.see seth mydans,“verdicts set off a wave of shock and anger,” new york times,april 30,1992.
第三章 政治审判
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1.试图对头条审判进行分类研究的早期成果之一为ray surette的“media trials”,journal of criminal just 17(1989):293。surette基于审判的主题将“媒体审判”分成三类,“滥用权力和信任” “有罪的富人”和“邪恶的陌生人”。这些类别本身看起来也有用处,但我认为增加一些种类的话意义会更大,我在本书中也将尽力而为。
2.peter charles hoffer,the treason trials of aaron burr(lawrence:university press of kansas,2008),1.
3.事实上,霍弗因此得出结论,“对亚伦·伯尔的审判并不是政治性的。”参见hoffer,treason trials of aaron burr,2。
4.blaine harden,“2 guilty in trade center blast,” washington post,november 13,1997.
5.katharine q.seelye,“regretful lindh gets 20 years in taliban case,” new york times,october 5,2002.
6.在2013年12月,出人意料地,***不仅释放了霍多尔科夫斯基,还释放了“暴动小猫”的成员——此举应是出于政治原因;他也释放了绿色和平组织船只上的船员,他们被捕并被控犯有海盗罪行。参见andrew s.kramer,“vast amnesty by russians includes case of greenpeace”,new york times,december 25,2013。
7.david m.herszenhorn,“dead lawyer,a kremlin critic,is found guilty of tax evasion,” new york times,july 12,2013.
8.liz gooch,“malaysian opposition leader acquitted in sodomy trial,” new york times,january 8,2012.see also “former ukraine prime minister found guilty of abuse of off in ‘ trial' verdict condemned by west,” daily mail,october 11,2011.
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9.独裁制度下的审判(以及整个法律体系)本身就是一个庞大的主题。很多现当代独裁者运行的是双重体系:普通的法院审理普通的案件,特别法院或者特别程序审理政治案件。因此,inga markovits对“鲁瑞茨”(她给一个东德城市取的化名)的研究表明,该市的地方法院不处理“政治犯”;这些案件会被转给级别更高的地区法院处理。见inga markovits,just in lüritz:experiencing socialist law in east germany(princeton:princeton university press,2010),93。
10.1945年,英国军队的炸弹击中了弗雷斯勒所在的法院大楼,结束了他臭名昭著的谋杀生涯。见“bombing kills nazi judge,” new york times,february 8,1945。
11.see jim yardley,“the mcveigh execution:oklahoma city,” new york times,june 12,2001.
12.quoted in robert a.ferguson,the trial in american life(chicago:universi-ty of chicago press,2007),233.
13.see the account in william r.conklin,“pair silent to end,” new york times,june 20,1953.
14.allen weinstein,perjury:the hiss-chambers case(new york:knopf,1978).至于希斯本人到底是不是苏联间谍,至今仍争论不休;部分证据表明,苏联至少给过他一段时间的钱。
15.“hiss convicted in perjury case,” los angeles times,january 22,1950.
16.参见john earl haynes and harvey klehr,early cold war spies(cam-bridge,uk:cambridge university press,2006),192。
17.los angeles times,march 8,1950.
18.haynes and klehr,early cold war spies,207.
19.在(不受欢迎的)越战期间,政府很难让征兵记录破坏者或反战抗议参与者被判有罪。可参见presidential clemency board,report to the president(1975,gpo),46-48页中的数据。
20.see shawn francis peters,the catonsville nine:a story of faith and resist-ance in the vietnam era(new york:oxford university press,2012).
21.j.anthony lukas,“seale put in chains at chicago 8 trial,” new york times,october 30,1969.
22.参见jason epstein,the great conspiracy trial(new york:random house,1970)。被告是否达到其既定目的,则是另外一回事。很可能如一位评论者指出的那样,被告“在提升个人名气上颇具成效,但在促进讨论越战问题上则远远不足”。参见juliet dee,“constraints on persuasion in the chicago seven trial,” in popular trials:rhetoric,mass media,and the law,ed.robert hariman,86-103(tuscaloosa:university of alabama press,1990),86,94。
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23.事实上,陪审团的裁决是“提交给我们的任何证据,均不能证明伯尔犯下了起诉状所记载的罪行”。但是伯尔要求以“无罪”来记录裁决结果,确实也如他所愿。见hoffer,treason trials of aaron burr,171。
24.bernell tripp,“the case of john brown,” in the press on trial:crimes and trials as media events,ed.lloyd chiasson,jr.,25-36(westport,conn.:green-wood,1997),25,34;charles joyner,“ ‘guilty of holiest crime':the passion of john brown,” in his soul goes marching on:responses to john brown and the harpers ferry raid,ed.paul finkelman,25-36(charlottesville:university press of virginia,1995),296,314-317.
25.讽刺的是,这首歌显然与“哈伯斯费里起义”毫不相干,而是写给约翰·布朗中士的;此人是马萨诸塞州的士兵,于1862年死于意外。见ferguson,trial in american life,151。
26.有关户栗郁子及她的审判,参见yasuhide kawashima,the tokyo rose case:treason on trial(lawrence:university press of kansas,2013)。
27.见james morton smith,'s fetters:the alien and sedition laws and american civil liberties(ithaca:cornell university press,1956)。该法律生效于1798年,同样禁止任何人煽动暴动及叛乱。
28.有关这些起诉,参见stanley elkins and eric mckitrick,the age of federal-ism:the early american republic,1788-1800(new york:oxford university press,1993),703-711。
29.40 stat.553(act of may 16,1918).
30.见艾布拉姆斯诉合众国案【abrams v.united states,250 u.s.616(1919)】。俄罗斯犹太裔移民散布小册子,批评总统干涉俄国如火如荼的内战。艾布拉姆斯及其同党被捕并受到审判,后来在最高法院输掉了官司。小奥利佛·温德尔·霍姆斯法官给出了著名的反对意见——尽管在几个月前体现类似问题的申克诉合众国案【schenck v.united states,249 u.s.47(1919)】判决中,他站在多数意见那边。关于艾布拉姆斯案、申克案以及其他案件,可参见richard polenberg,fighting faiths:the abrams case,the supreme court,and free speech(ithaca:cornell university press,1987)。
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31.whitney v.california,274 u.s.357(1927).
32.见moshik temkin,the sacco-vanzetti affair:america on trial(new haven:yale university press,2009)。研究这起著名事件并明确讨论审判政治后果的书籍数量极多,该书仅为其中之一。参见susan tejada,in search of sacco and van-zetti(boston:northeastern university press,2012)。二人(或其中一人)到底有没有犯下被控罪行,至今仍存在争议。
33.felix frankfurter,the case of sacco and vanzetti:a critical analysis for law-yers and laymen(boston:little,brown,1927).
34.temkin,sacco-vanzetti affair.
35.see tejada,in search of sacco and vanzetti,299.
36.tejada,in search of sacco and vanzetti,288.
37.temkin,the sacco-vanzetti affair,220.
38.milton bracker,“slain by partisans:the inglorious end of a dictator,”new york times,april 30,1945;mark mazower,hitler's empire:how the nazis ruled eu-rope(new york:penguin press,2008),503.
39.关于纽伦堡审判的书籍汗牛充栋。见lawrence m.friedman,the human rights culture:a study in history and culture(new orleans:quid pro books,2011),145-151;paul roland,the nuremberg trials:the nazis and their crimes a-gainst humanity(london:arcturus,2010);michael r.marrus,the nuremberg war crimes trial,1945-46(newyork:bedford books,1997);robert e.conot,just at nuremberg(new york:harper & row,1983);bradley f.smith,the road to nuremburg(new york:basic books,1981);burton c.andrus,the infamous of nu-remberg(london:frewin,1969);robert k.woetzel,the nuremberg trials in inter-national law(london:stevens,1960);august von knieriem,the nuremberg trials(chicago:h.regnery co.,1959);george creel,war criminals and punishment(new york:hutchinson,1944).
40.摘自christian delage,caught on camera:film in the courtroom from the nuremberg trials to the trials of the khmer rouge(philadelphia:university of penn-sylvania press,2014),87。
41.delage,caught on camera,63.
42.见george j.annas and michael a.grodin,eds.,the nazi doctors and the nuremberg code:human rights in human experimentation(new york:oxford uni-versity press,1992)。其中最臭名昭著的医生、被称为“死亡天使”的约瑟夫·门格勒(josef mengele)逃脱了法网,并在南美洲度过余生。
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43.tomaz jardim,the mauthausen trial:american military just in germany(cambridge,mass.:harvard university press,2012).
44.see philip r.piccigallo,the japanese on trial:allied war crimes operations in the east,1945-1951(austin:university of texas press,1979).
45.see,for example,tim maga,judgment at tokyo:the japanese war crimes trials(lexington:university press of kentucky,2001).
46.gerald steinacher,nazis on the run:how hitler's henchmen fled just(ox-ford:oxford university press,2011).
47.有关于背景,参见homer bigart,“trial of eichmann opens before israeli tribunal” ,new york times,april 11,1961。关于审判的纪实作品,可见deborah e.lipstad,the eichmann trial(new york:nextbook/schocken,2011);stephan landsman,crimes of the holocaust:the law confronts hard cases(philadelphia:u-niversity of pennsylvania press,2005),56-109。
48.ted morgan,“the barbie file,” new york times magazine,may 10,1987.
49.苏联同样参与这些审判的运作,从而(至少)在一定程度上影响了这种讯息。
50.see friedman,human rights culture.
51.ibid.
52.see lawrence r.helfer and anne-marie slaughter,“toward a theory of ef-fective supranational adjudication,” yale law journal 107(1997):273;helen sta-cy,human rights for the 21st century:sovereignty,human rights,culture(stanford:stanford university press,2009).
53.marlise simons,“10-year term for a serb in war crimes called light,” new york times,march 31,2004.
54.对于这类法庭的一个尖锐批评,可见thierry cruvellier,court of re-morse:inside the international criminal tribunal for rwanda(madison:university of wisconsin press,2010)。
55.barbara crossette,“world criminal court is ratified;praised by u.n.,op-posed by u.s.,” new york times,april 11,2002.
56.关于这些法庭和国际刑事法院,参见stacy,human rights for the 21stcentury,58-75。“反人类罪”包括针对平民人口“有系统”地谋杀或者奴役、对“集体”的迫害、种族隔离、酷刑、强奸以及强迫人员失踪(《国际刑事法院罗马规约》第七条)。“战争犯罪”也有着详细定义。
184
57.friedman,human rights culture,154-155.
58.see rebecca evans,“pinochet in london—pinochet in chile:international and domestic politics in human rights policy,” human rights quarterly 28(2006):207.
59.kareem fahim,“morsi and muslim brotherhood leaders charged with inciting murder,” new york times,september 2,2013.
60.see,for example,alexander laban hinton,ed.,transitional just:global mechanisms and local realities after genocide and mass violence(new brunswick,n.j.:rutgers university press,2010).
61.christine a.e.bakker,“a full stop to amnesty in argentina:the simon case,” journal of international criminal just 3(2005):1,106;sam ferguson,“argentina's ‘disappeared':just at last or reneging on amnesty,” christian sci-ence monitor,december 24,2009.
62.alison bisset,truth commissions and criminal courts(cambridge,uk:cambridge university press,2012),75.每种类型都会引发“一系列独特的问题和挑战;重合的指令、互相关联的行动、依赖于相同证据、需要接触相同证人等问题,让两者既相互联系,又产生冲突” 。
63.一份出自国际刑事法院检察官办公室的政策性文件“认可”了“其他转型时期司法机制所起到的作用”,并宣布国际刑事法院将“寻求与其进行建设性合作”。见bisset,truth commissions and criminal courts,192。
第四章 腐败和欺诈
1.这一类别与ray surette在“media trials”一文【journal of criminal jus-t 17(1989):293】中所说的“滥用权力”的审判非常接近,surette也将其视为媒体审判的一大主题。
2.基本上,有七名共和党人投了反对票;他们“作为七烈士而载入史册”,至少本次弹劾的反对者是这样记录的。见michael les benedict,the impeachment and trial of andrew johnson(new york:norton,1973),173。
3.“clinton acquitted decisively;no majority for either charge,”new york times,february 13,1999.eric schmitt,“in the end,senate passes no harsh judg-ment on clinton,” new york times,february 13,1999,一项质询总统的动议也失败了。
4.see richard b.lillich,“the chase impeachment,” american journal of legal history 4(1960):49.
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5.ruth marcus,“senate removes hastings,” washington post,october 21,1989.
6.gerald gunther,learned hand:the man and the judge(oxford:oxford uni-versity press,1994),503-515.
7.sir william blackstone,vol.1,commentaries on the laws of england(oxford:clarendon press,1765),178.
8.edward banfield,the moral basis of a backward society(glencoe,ill.:free press,1958),10.
9.see laton mccartney,the teapot dome scandal(new york:random house,2008).
10.“fall found guilty in oil bribe case;jury asks mercy,” new york times,october 26,1929.
11.见neil a.lewis,“alaskan senator is guilty over his failures to disclose gifts” ,new york times,october 27,2008;neil a.lewis,“dis-missal for stevens,but question on ‘innocent’ ” new york times,april 11,2009。史蒂文斯参议员死于飞机失事,另有一位调查该案的联邦检察官自杀;见charlie savage,“stevens case prosecutor kills himself” ,new york times,september 27,2010。
12.monica davey,“blagojevich sentenced to 14 years in prison,” new york times,december 7,2011.
13.susan saulny,“after bit part in legal drama,a blagojevich tries reality tv” ,new york times,june 6,2009。布拉戈耶维奇夫人解释说她失业了,很需要钱。
14.see diana b.henriques and jack healy,“madoff jailed after pleading guilty to fraud,” new york times,march 13,2009.
15.“eight white sox players are indicted on charge of fixing 1919 world se-ries,” new york times,september 29,1920.
16.c.j.hughes,“ex-dean accused of using students as servants,”new york times,september 30,2010;william k.rashbaum et al.,“fallen dean's life,con-tradictory to its grisly end,” new york times,december 10,2012.
17.see martin lowy,high rollers:inside the savings and loan debacle(new york:praeger,1991).
18.“new act is called boon to investors,” new york times,june 17,1934.
第五章 正义伸张了吗?
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1.见本书第46—47页(边码)。
2.关于此案的文献汗牛充栋。george whyte的the dreyfus affair:a chrono-logical history(basingstoke,uk:palgrave macmillan,2005)中的概述很有帮助。
3.see dan t.carter,scottsboro:a tragedy of the american south(baton rouge:louisiana state university press,1969).
4.鲍威尔诉阿拉巴马案【powell v.alabama,287 u.s.45(1932)】。本案在被告获得指定代理人权利的发展进程中扮演了重要角色。
5.见leonard dinnerstein,the leo frank case(new york:columbia university press)。大多数学者觉得法兰克是无辜的,一位看门人才是真凶;讽刺的是,看门人是黑人。
6.theodore hamm,rebel and a cause:caryl chessman and the politics of the death penalty in postwar california,1948-1974(berkeley:university of california press,2001).
7.see “1,500 clergy back rosenbergs’ plea,” new york times,january 15,1953.
8.william r.conklin,“atom spy couple sentenced to die;aide gets 30 years,” new york times,april 5,1951.
9.“riots erupt after white is convicted of manslaughter,” los angeles times,may 22,1979.
10.有关这个案件,参见william f.lewis,“power,knowledge,and insanity:the trial of john w.hinckley,jr.,” in popular trials:rhetoric,mass media,and the law,ed.robert hariman,114-132(tuscaloosa:university of alabama press,1990),114。
11.见robert l.jackson,“administration attacks insanity defense” ,los angel-es times ,july 20,1982.。联邦层面的立法是1984年《精神失常抗辩改革法》(98 stat.2057,1984年10月12日);该法的核心被编入《美国法典》第18卷第17节(title 18,chapter 2,sec.18-207)。《爱达荷州法典》第18卷第2章第18节第207条规定,“精神状态”不能作为“……任何受到指控的犯罪行为的抗辩理由”。但实际情况并非如此。该法同样规定了专家可以为“作为犯罪构成要件的任何精神状态问题”作证【第18节第207条第(3)款,18-207(3)】。换言之,被告不能以精神失常为由进行无罪辩护,但是可以试图证明他/她不具有必备的犯罪意图(比如谋杀),因为他/她确实精神失常。还可参见h.j.steadman et al.,“maintenance of an insanity defense under montana's ‘abo-lition’ of the insanity defense,” american journal of psychiatry 146(1989):357。作者认为,一言以蔽之,将蒙大拿州的规定视作“废除精神失常抗辩”是不准确的。在所谓的“废除”之后,以精神失常为由进行无罪辩护的被告,通常会被认为不具备接受审判的能力,最终则是无限期的看押在守备森严的州医院中。
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13.实际上,五人中只有两人是“夏威夷人”,两人是日本人,一个有中国血统。关于整起事件的记录,参见david e.stannard,honor killing:race,rape,and clarence darrow's spectacular last case(new york:penguin,2005)。
14.stannard,honor killing,336.
15.lizette alvarez and cara buckley,“zimmerman is acquitted in trayvon mar-tin killing,” new york times,july 14,2013.
16.关于这起著名事件及其后续发展,有许多作品记述,参见arthur f.mcevoy,“the
shirtwaist fire of 1911:social change,industrial acci-dents,and the evolution of common-sense causality,” law and social inquiry 20(1995):621;richard a.greenwald,the
fire,the protocols of peace,and industrial democracy in progressive era new york(philadelphia:temple university press,2005)。
17.“indict owners of burned factory,” new york times,april 12,1911.
18.“ owners acquitted by jury,” new york times,december 28,1911.
19.see john c.esposito,fire in the grove:the coconut grove tragedy and its af-termath(cambridge,mass.:da capo,2005).
20.see,for example,keith schneider,“jury finds exxon acted recklessly in valdez oil spill,” new york times,june 14,1994.
21.reynolds v.united states,98 u.s.145(1879);sarah barringer gordon,the mormon question:polygamy and constitutional conflict in nineteenth century a-merica(chapel hill:university of north carolina press,2002).
22.shawn francis peters,when prayer fails:faith healing,children,and the law(oxford:oxford university press,2008).
23.edward j.larson,summer for the gods:the scopes trial and america's con-tinuing debate over science and religion(new york:basic books,1997).
第六章 花边小报式审判
1.“thaw murders stanford white” ,new york times,june 26,1906.恐慌的观众冲向出口。肖告诉一位警察:“他罪有应得。”事情的大概可参见michael macdonald mooney,evelyn nesbit and stanford white:love and death in the gilded age(new york:morrow,1976);gerald langford,the murder of stanford white(in-dianapolis:bobbs-merrill,1962)。
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2.deborah dorian paul,ed.,tragic beauty:the lost 1914 memoirs of evelyn nesbit(morrisville,n.c.:lulu enterprises,2006),46.
3.irvin s.cobb,exit laughing(garden city,n.y.:garden city publishing,1942),198-199.
4.ibid.
5.mooney,evelyn nesbit and stanford white,257-258.
6.一本又一本著作试图解开开膛手杰克之谜。显然,已有数十人荣幸地被提名为“真正的开膛手杰克”。比如,悬疑小说作家patricia cornwell就声称其portrait of a killer:jack the ripper;case closed(new york:putnam's,2002,中文译本有帕特丽夏·康薇尔著、刘喆译《开膛手杰克结案报告》,南海出版公司2015年版)一书已经解开了谜团。她的候选人是艺术家华特·席格。但是席格犯下如此罪行的可能性似乎太低了些——至少其他研究开膛手杰克的专家是这么认为的。没有哪种说法获得普遍认可;当然,到了今天,所有线索都已经彻底过期了。
7.don terry,“jeffrey dahmer,multiple killer,is bludgeoned to death in pris-on” ,new york times,november 29,1994。维斯康辛州没有死刑——至少没有正式规定死刑。不过,像达莫那样的人,几乎不可能在狱中活到耄耋之年。
8.见adam higgenbotham,“the long,long life of the lipstick killer,” gq,may 2008;steve mills and ryan hagerty,“william heirens,known as the ‘lipstick killer' dead” ,chicago tribune,march 6,2012.如果黑尔伦斯确实是无辜的,他的案子则是再次反映了这一悲伤的事实:有些引起众怒的案件“破案”压力太大,会让警方、检方想办法走捷径,甚至铤而走险。
9.see,for example,“der kannibale von rotenburg—jetzt rede ich!,”bild-zeitung,june 19,2009.see also guenter stampf,interview with a cannibal:the se-cret life of the monster of rotenburg(san francisco:phoenix books,2008);see law-rence m.friedman and nina-louisa arold,“cannibal rights:a note on the modern law of privacy” ,northwestern interdisciplinary law review 4(2011):235.
10.关于朱厄特案及其与媒体的关系,参见andie tucher,froth and scum:truth,beauty,goodness,and the ax murder in america's first mass medium(chapel hill:university of north carolina press,1994)。
11.关于这个案子,可参见daniel a.cohen,“the murder of maria bickford:fashion,passion,and the birth of a consumer culture” ,american studies 31(1990):5。
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12.see colin wilson and donald seaman,the serial killers:a study in the psy-chology of violence(london:w.h.allen,1990).
13.see vincent bugliosi,helter skelter:the true story of the manson murders(new york:norton,1974).
14.比如斯科特·彼得森被控谋杀他怀有身孕的妻子,并被判有罪。见carolyn marshall,“jury finds scott peterson guilty of wife's murder” ,new york times,november 13,2004。彼得森有位情妇,此节亦被视为其犯罪动机之一。他被判处死刑,现在正在加州等待执行。
15.关于克拉拉的审判,可见lawrence m.friedman and robert v.percival,the roots of just:crime and punishment in alameda county,california,1870-1910(chapel hill:university of north carolina press,1981),239-244。
16.此案详情可见carole haber,the trials of laura fair:sex,murder,and insanity in the victorian west(chapel hill:university of north carolina press,2013);亦可见gordon morris bakken and brenda farrington,women who kill men:califor-nia courts,gender,and the press(lincoln:university of nebraska press,2009),19-39。
17.见nat brandt,the congressman who got away with murder(syracuse:syr-acuse university press,1991)。“不成文法”在19世纪末、20世纪初兴盛一时;关于此节,可参见lawrence m.friedman and william e.havemann,“the rise and fall of the unwritten law:sex,patriarchy and vigilante just in the american courts,” buffalo law review 61(2013):997。
18.关于这种“不成文法”的定义,可参见robert m.ireland,“the liber-tine must die:sexual dishonor and the unwritten law in the nineteenth-century unit-ed states” ,journal of social history 23(1992):27;hendrik hartog,“lawyering,husbands’ rights and the ‘unwritten law’ in nineteenth-century america” ,jour-nal of american history 84(1997):67;martha merrill umphrey,“the dialogics of legal meaning:spectacular trials,the unwritten law,and narratives of criminal re-sponsibility” ,law and society review 33(1999):393;friedman and havemann,“unwritten law”。
19.爱德华·鲍尔(edward ball)的the inventor and the tycoon一书(new york:doubleday,2013)中讲述了这一事件。此书所说的大亨就是利兰·斯坦福,他为迈布里奇拍摄摄影作品提供了赞助。该书重点描述了谋杀案审判(见第166、199、279页)。
20.“saved by unwritten law,” atlanta constitution,january 19,1908.
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21.“unwritten law saves” ,washington post,may 13,1900。他的妻子是一位“相当美丽的文雅女性”,她为辩方作证,“以自己的名誉为代价”,“坐实了”辩护理由。
22.关于本案,可见bill neal,sex,murder,& the unwritten law:gender and judicial mayhem,texas style(lubbock:texas tech university press,2009),18-39。
23.“widowed bride tells her pathetic story to save her brothers,”atlanta constitution,february 28,1907。
24.ibid.
25.“unwritten law in his charge,although not specially mentioned by judge harrison” ,atlanta constitution,march 6,1907;(双方)就兄弟俩的“失去理智的情绪”问题所做出的证词,可参见“made insane by the wrong done sister,”atlanta constitution ,march 3,1907。
26.“strother boys freed and judge approves verdict of the jury,”atlanta con-stitution,march 8,1907.
27.los angeles times,february 9,1909.
28.ball,the inventor and the tycoon,199.
29.见rosemary gartner和jim phillips,“the creffield-mitchell case,seattle,1906:the unwritten law in the pacific northwest” ,pacific northwest quarterly 94(2003):69,79。此处提及的案件是弗兰茨·克雷费尔德谋杀案,他是一个离经叛道的小型教派的领袖。凶手是位男性,认为克雷费尔德和自己的妹妹发生了关系,或者打算和她发生关系。此案的细节在jim phillips和rosemary gartner的murdering holiness:the trials of franz creffield and george mitchell(vancouver:uni-versity of british columbia press,2003)一书中有详细描述。
30.在肖案审判中,检方试图证明,16岁的伊芙琳·内斯比特根本不像她自己所说的那么纯洁——那时她早已开始“花神朵拉”伴唱女孩的舞台生涯。但是这个观点似乎没有什么实质性影响。
31.karen halttunen,“ ‘domestic differences’:competing narratives of wom-anhood in the murder trial of lucretia chapman,” in the culture of sentiment:race,gender,and sentimentality in nineteenth-century america,ed.shirley samuels,39-57(new york:oxford university press,1992),39,44.
32.关于探讨这种女性形象的起源和社会意义,可参见nancy scott,“pas-sionlessness:an interpretation of victorian sexual ideology,1790-1850,” signs 4(1978):219。
33.之前我们曾提及1871年著名的劳拉·费尔审判,此案中的刻板印象就反过来了:受害者的情妇劳拉有过多次婚史,她被说得更像是个诱惑男人的恶魔,而不是个真实的女性;受害者则被描述成一位个性软弱的男人,轻易就被这个邪恶放荡的女人引入歧途。见haber,the trials of laura fair,第二章。劳拉被判处死刑,但是加利福尼亚州最高法院推翻了判决,她在第二次审判中被无罪开释。在这次审判中,主要的问题在于精神失常抗辩;劳拉自己并未出庭作证,但是她的品行问题(抑或失德之处)并不是案件的焦点。
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34.“unwritten law liberates woman,” chicago tribune,january 29,2008.see carolyn ramsey,“domestic violence and state intervention in the american west and australia,1860-1930,” indiana law journal 86(2011):185,especially 222-231;carolyn ramsey,“intimate homicide:gender and crime control,1880-1920,” uni-versity of colorado law review 77(2006):101.
35.jeffrey s.adler,“ ‘i loved joe,but i had to shoot him’:homicide by women in turn-of-the-century chicago,” journal of criminal law and criminology 92:867,882-883;marianne constable,“chicago husband-killing and the ‘new unwritten law,’” triquarterly 124(2000):85.
36.adler,“ ‘i loved joe,but i had to shoot him,’ ” 883.
37.《纽约时报》对此案进行了广泛报道,经常放在头版新闻。如russell porter,“defense opens case,says sander will testify air followed death,” new york times,march 3,1950;russell porter,“sander acquitted in an hour;crowd outside court cheers,” new york times,march 10,1950。
38.see friedman and havemann,“unwritten law,” 1044-1049.
第七章 名人审判
1.有关名人审判,可见gini graham scott,homicide by the rich and famous:a century of prominent killers(westport,conn.:praeger,2005)。
2.jim fisher,the lindbergh case(new brunswick:rutgers university press,1987).
3.gail collins,scorpion tongues:gossip,celebrity,and american politics(new york:william morrow,1998),85-87.
4.collins,scorpion tongues,88.
5.see ruth brandon,the life and many deaths of harry houdini(new york:random house,1993).
6.samantha barbas,movie crazy:fans,stars,and the cult of celebrity(new york:palgrave,2001),16-17.
7.关于这些不可靠的作品类型,参见anthony slide,inside the hollywood fan magazine:a history of star makers,fabricators,and gossip mongers(jackson:uni-versity press of mississippi,2010)。
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8.douglas b.craig,fireside politics:radio and political culture in the united states,1920-1940(baltimore:johns hopkins university press,2000),154-156.罗斯福“极其注意”公众对这些广播的反应,也收到了节目带来的“海量信件”。craig,fireside politics ,156.
9.lawrence m.friedman,guarding life's dark secrets(stanford:stanford uni-versity press,2007),226.
10.ellis cashmore,celebrity/culture(new york:routledge,2006),7.
11.关于“公共人物”的隐私权,可见diane l.zimmerman,“requiem for a heavyweight:a farewell to warren and brandeis's privacy tort” ,cornell law review 68(1983):291;friedman,guarding life's dark secrets,220-225。
12.关于辛普森审判有大量的文献。jeffrey toobin,the run of his life:the people v.o.j.simpson(new york:random house,1996);darnell m.hunt,o.j.simpson facts and fictions:news rituals in the construction of reality(cam-bridge,uk:cambridge university press,1999).辛普森如今身处狱中,长期服刑,但其罪名与谋杀罪并不相干。
13.完整的记述可见greg merritt,room 1219:the life of fatty arbuckle,the mysterious death of virginia rappe,and the scandal that changed hollywood(chica-go:chicago review press,2013);也可参见david a.yallop,the day the laughter died:the true story of fatty arbuckle(new york:st.martin's press,1976)。
14.merritt,room 1219,223-227.
15.“arbuckle is not guilty,jurors decide quickly,” los angeles times,april 13,1922.see merritt,room 1219,268.
16.paul thaler,the watchful eye(westport,conn.:praeger,1994),38.
17.此次审判是耸人听闻的公众事件,最后肯尼迪却被无罪释放——这会“导致强奸行为的受害者不敢报案吗?”我们得知,在棕榈湾县,自此次事件发生之日至庭审期间,“强奸罪的报案数量大幅度下降”;但此后的数据则再无报道。此案即使有影响,也可能是暂时性的。
18.vincent bugliosi,helter skelter:the true story of the manson murders(new york:norton,1974).
19.edward steers,jr.,blood on the moon:the assassination of abraham lincoln(lexington:university press of kentucky,2001),211-226;michael w.kauffman,american brutus:john wilkes booth and the lincoln conspiracies(new york:random house,2004),342-370.
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20.charles rosenberg,the trial of the assassin guiteau:psychiatry and law in the gilded age(chicago:university of chicago press,1968).
21.在20世纪,研究此案的临床医生们倾向于同意吉托“是位恐慌的精神分裂症患者”。rosenberg,the trial of the assassin guiteau ,xiii.
22.“assassin czolgosz is executed at auburn,” new york times,october 30,1901.
23.john kaplan,the trial of jack ruby(new york:macmillan,1965).
24.“zangara given death penalty,” los angeles times,march 11,1933.
25.见本书第66页(边码),以及本章注释10和11。
第八章 身份之谜
1.susan m.drucker and jan platt humold,“the claus von bulow retrial:lights,camera,genre?” in popular trials:rhetoric,mass media,and the law,e-d.robert hariman,(tuscaloosa:university of alabama,1990),133.
2.alan m.deritz,reversal of fortune:inside the von bulow case(new york:random house,1985).
3.deritz,reversal of fortune,245.本书是对这个案子的完整记述,当然,都是出自德肖维茨的立场。
4.比如edward d.radin,lizzie borden:the untold story(new york:simon &schuster,1961)。radin称丽兹是无辜的,并暗示波顿家的爱尔兰女仆布里琪特·沙利文才是凶手。但在我看来,可能性最大的答案,正是最显而易见的答案:丽兹本人才是罪犯。
5.见fred graham,“sheppard—fair trial issue raised,” new york times,november 21,1965。美国最高法院在sheppard v.maxwell,384 u.s.333(1966)一案的判决中提到了这一点。
6.cynthia l.cooper and sam reese sheppard,mockery of just:the true story of the sheppard murder case(boston:northeastern university press,1995),91-93.谢泼德之子正是本书的作者之一。当然,此书认为谢泼德完全清白无辜。
7.sheppard,384 u.s.333(1966).
8.“sheppard freed in wife's killing at 2d trial after 9 years in jail,”new york times,november 17,1966.
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9.见cooper and sheppard,mockery of just,及fox butterfield,“new clues in an old murder case,” new york times,february 5,1997。cooper与sheppard认为,当年有位擦窗工人在谢泼德家中工作,后被认定谋杀一位老寡妇,此人才是真凶。也有人认为谢泼德案是大受欢迎的电视剧《亡命天涯》及其同名电影的灵感来源。
10.对本案完整的记述,见martin l.friedland,the death of old man r:a true story of criminal just in america(new york:new york university press,1994)。
11.new york times,november 28,1912.
12.see “was it murder?” stanford magazine,january-february 2000;available at ://www.stanfordalumni/.
13.people v.lamson,1 cal.2d 648,36 p.2d 361.关于死囚生活,拉姆森写了一本书we who are about to die:prison as seen by a condemned man,后来于1936年出版。
14.ludovic kennedy,crime of the century(new york:penguin,1996).
第九章 金玉其外
1.丽兹·波顿案的文献汗牛充栋,它还成为了至少一部戏剧和一部芭蕾舞剧的主题。我尤其依赖于cara w.robertson的研究成果,即“representing ‘miss lizzie':cultural convictions in the trial of lizzie borden,” yale journal of law and the humanities 8(1996):350。
2.引自robertson,“representing ‘miss lizzie,’ ” 414。
3.robertson,“representing ‘miss lizzie,’ ” 416.see also a.cheree carlson,the crimes of womanhood:defining femininity in a court of law(urbana:university of illinois press,2009),85-110.
4.我从ronald pearsall的the worm in the bud:the world of victorian sexuality(london:weidenfeld and nicolson,1969)一书中借用了“金玉其外”(the worm in the bud)这个短语。
5.ian c.pilarczyk在“the terrible haystack murder:the moral paradox of hy-pocrisy,prudery and piety in antebel-lum america”一文【american journal of le-gal history 41(1997):25】中讨论了此案。很多人还是认为艾弗里对康奈尔之死负有责任,他后来也被解除神职。还可见william g.mcloughlin,“untangling the tiverton tragedy:the social meaning of the terrible haystack murder of 1833” ,journal of american culture 7(1984):75.william g.mcloughlin认可此案是对生活方式的审判,但也认为“工厂女孩”的身份与教士一样,都是此案激发情绪的重点。她到底是一位辛勤工作的好姑娘,纺织厂新兴劳工大军的一员?还是离经叛道,根本不是位可敬女性?
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6.karen halttunen,“‘domestic differences’:competing narratives of woman-hood in the murder trial of lucretia chapman,” in the culture of sentiment:race,gender,and sentimentality in nineteenth-century america,ed.shirley samuel(new york:oxford university press,1992),55.根据辩护意见,真正的坏人是一位骗子;他设计骗了她,窃取她的金钱和名誉(在其夫死后与她结婚)。有趣的是,在针对此人的审判中,他还被认定谋杀了她的丈夫。
7.virginia a.mcconnell,arsenic under the elms:murder in victorian new haven(lincoln:university of nebraska press,1999),115.
8.richard k.sherwin,when law goes pop:the vanishing line between law and popular culture(chicago:university of chicago press,2000),98.
9.hal higdon,leopold and loeb:the crime of the century(new york:putnam,1975).
10.kirk johnson,“trial opening for chambers in park killing” ,new york times,january 4,1988.报道中写道:“不管莱文小姐与钱伯斯先生是否属于此类人士,在很多人心目中,他们也已经成了这种人的典型代表。”
11.kirk johnson,“chambers,with jury at impasse,admits lst-degree mans-laughter,” new york times,march 26,1988.
12.tom cullen,the mild murderer:the true story of the dr.crippen case(lon-don:penguin books,1989).
13.有关于这次审判,可参见helen thomson,murder at harvard(boston:houghton mifflin,1971)。
14.关于撒勒姆审判有很多书籍。见paul boyer and stephen nissenbaum,sa-lem possessed:the social origins of witchcraft(cambridge,mass.:harvard universi-ty press,1974),以及carol f.karlsen,the devil in the shape of a woman:witch-craft in colonial new england(new york:norton,1987).
15.另一种可能性较小的解释是,这部电影也隐喻了猎巫:人们觉得在每个灌木丛中都能看到共产主义者;普通人如果莫名其妙地引起了他们的怀疑,就会被当作外星异客(或者说苏联人)一样对待。
16.关于这些审判,参见debbie nathan and michael snedeker,satan's silence:ritual abuse and the
of a modern american witch hunt(new york:basic books,1995);paul and shirley eberle,the abuse of innocence:the mcmartin pre-school trial(buffalo:prometheus,1993)。
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17.关于麦卡锡和麦卡锡主义的书籍数量极多。如ellen schrecker,many are the crimes:mccarthyism in america(boston:little,brown,1998);arthur j.sabin,red scare in court:new york vs.the international workers’ order(philadelphia:uni-versity of pennsylvania press,1993);以及arthur j.sabin,in calmer times:the su-preme court and red monday(philadelphia:university of pennsylvania press,1999);及thomas doherty,cold war,cool medium:television,mccarthyism,and american culture(new york:columbia university press,2003)。
18.见本章的注释14。
19.see “nanny,accused of murdering baby,enters not guilty plea,”new york times,february 14,1997.
20.引自paula fass,一位历史学教授,出自carey goldberg,“trial of au pair reveals unease in u.s.society,” new york times,november 19,1997。
21.见jonathan bignell,an introduction to television studies ,2d ed.(lon -don:routledge,2008),129。bignell认为,“来自地狱的保姆”鼓励观众“给通常是被剥削者的年轻看护们打上烙印,并对其心生恐惧、仅视之为令人不安的罪犯”。这也让“女性气质的保守定义”更有市场:母亲们“雇佣那些发誓曾经全职照顾自己孩子的保姆”,从而传播着“离家工作的母亲们不负责任,也违反自然规律”的看法。
22.wendy ruderman and marc santora,“two children slain at home in city;nanny arrested,” new york times,october 26,2012.
第十章 为什么会这样?
1.richard l.fox and robert w.van sickel,tabloid just:criminal just in an age of media frenzy(boulder:lynne rienner,2001).
2.virginia a.mcconnell,the adventuress:murder,blackmail and confidence s in the gilded age(kent,ohio:kent state university press,2010)一书中讨论了此次审判。描写围观人群盛况的段落见该书第75页。在审判结束时,米妮被无罪释放。此案中被告有罪与否确实是个问题。而且,被告年轻貌美,被害人又身为市长,此案也因此披上了耸人听闻的光晕。
3.elizabeth dale,the chicago trunk murder:law and just at the turn of the century(dekalb:northern illinois university press,2011).
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4.见mark a.weitz,the sleepy lagoon murder case:race discrimination and mexican-american rights(lawrence:university press of kansas,2010)。法官似乎特别敌视这些年轻的墨西哥被告;他们定罪的证据非常不充分,好在上诉法院撤销了有罪判决。
5.参见dan t.carter,scottsboro:a tragedy of the american south(baton rouge:louisiana state press,1969);此案是鲍威尔诉阿拉巴马案【287 u.s.45(1932)】。
6.jeffrey toobin,the run of his life:the people vs.o.j.simpson(new york:random house,1996),101-103.
7.sarah anne hughes,“nancy grace,trial watchers react to casey anthony verdict,” washington post,july 6,2011.
8.参见lizette alvarez,“casey anthony not guilty in slaying of daugh-ter,”new york times,july 5,2011。“自……o.j.辛普森案……以来,全美还不曾因为陪审团而如此分裂……公众要求知道陪审团为何让犯下这样严重罪行的凶手逃脱法网,他们的愤怒之情显而易见。” jonathan turley,“anthony case:hate the facts,not the jury,” usa today,july 12,2011.
9.关于杀婴,参见lawrence m.friedman,“dead on arrival”,作者手稿。
10.seth mydans,“the other menendez trial,too,ends with the jury dead-locked,” new york times,january 29,1994.再审时,兄弟俩被判有罪。“menend-ez brothers sentenced to life in prison,” new york times,july 3,1996.
11.见meryl gordon,“the new astor court,” vanity fair(september 2009)。这部“道德剧”是一场“不可思议的娱乐”“尽人皆知,就是钱的事情”。布鲁克·阿斯特曾经“广受爱戴”;她的葬礼“观者如堵,以致第五大道水泄不通”。但如今在法庭上,“她生命的最后几年被一一解构” ,她的医疗记录被公之于众,奢华的生活细节也完全暴露在数百万如饥似渴的媒体受众眼前。
12.我们知道,当某人“在身体或精神上虚弱不堪、丧失行动能力时”,他们就不再是“对社会的威胁”,可以获准保外就医。russ beuttner,“deemed too sick,astor son is pa-roled,” new york times,august 23,2013。马歇尔死于2014年。robert p.mcfadden,“anthony marshall,90,astor son who was convicted in estate scandal,dies,new york times,dec.2,2014.
第十一章 我们是谁?
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1.当然也有例外。在勒伯-利奥波德案中,两位被告就承认了罪行;唯一的问题是会不会判处他们死刑。那些“不成文法”案件的案情也是一目了然,正如我们所指出的那样。
2.f.james davis,who is black?one nation's definition(university park:penn-sylvania state university press,1991),13.
3.在少数情况下,对黑人血统的极端定义也可以让人反向“假冒”。克莱伦斯·金是19世纪著名的科学家,家世显赫,却另有隐秘身份;他与一位黑人女性艾达·托德同居,和她生儿育女,并且“假冒”自己是位黑人,干着门房和炼钢工人的活儿。金的两个身份彼此隔绝。martha a.sandweiss,passing strange:a gilded age tale of love and deception across the color line(new york:penguin,2009).
4.此前莉迪亚·玛利亚·查尔德(lydia maria child)的小说a romance of the republic(boston:ticknor and fields,1867)也用到过这个情节。关于此书,可参见shirley samuels,“the identity of slavery,” in the culture of sentiment:race,gender,and sentimentality in nineteenth-century america,ed.shirley samuels(new york:oxford university press,1992),157,168-171。
5.daniel j.sharfstein,the invisible line:three american families and the secret journey from black to white(new york:penguin,2011).
6.see annette gordon-reed,the hemingses of montllo:an american family(new york:norton,2008).
7.james m.o’ toole,passing for white:race,religion,and the healy family,1820-1920(amherst:university of massachusetts press,2002).
8.earl lewis and heidi ardizzone,love on trial:an american scandal in black and white(new york:norton,2001);see also,a.cheree carlson,the crimes of womanhood(urbana:university of illinois press,2009)136-155;ariela julie gross,what blood won't tell:a history of race on trial in america(cambridge,mass.:harvard university press,2008).
9.rohan mcwilliam,the tichborne claimant:a victorian sensation(london:hambledon continuum,2007).
10.mark twain,following the equator:a journey around the world,vol.1(new york:harper & bros.,1906 edition)156-157.
11.peter kurth,anastasia:the riddle of anna anderson(boston:little,brown,1983).
12.见margot finn,michael lobban,and jenny bourne taylor,“after-word,”in legitimacy and illegitimacy in nineteenth-century law,literature and history,e-d.finn,lobban,and taylor,173-174(houndmills,uk:palgrave macmillan,2010)。私生子当然没有继承权。因此19世纪的小说经常提出这个问题:谁才是真正的继承人?比如安东尼·特罗洛普(anthony trollope)的小说《安娜夫人》(lady anna,1874)与《斯卡伯勒的婚约》(mr.scarborough's family,1883)中就写到了这个问题。
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13.see laura peters,orphan texts:victorian orphans,culture and empire(manchester:manchester university press,2000).
14.rohan mcwilliam,“unauthorized identities:the impostor,the fake and the secret history in nineteenth-century britain,” in legitimacy and illegitimacy,67,81-84.
15.他无罪的理由在yoram sheftel的the demjanjuk affair:the rise and fall of a -trial(london:v.gollancz,1994)中有所阐明。
16.在heinrich wefing的der fall demjanjuk:der letzte grosse ns-prozess(mu-nich:c.h.beck,2011)中对此有讨论。
17.lawrence m.friedman,guarding life's dark secrets:legal and social con-trols over reputation,propriety,and privacy(stanford:stanford university press,2007).
18.通奸几乎是板上钉钉的事,但是陪审团未能达成一致意见,因此至少可以默认比奇赢了官司。关于这一著名审判,可参见richard wightman fox,tri-als of intimacy:love and loss in the beecher-tilton scandal(chicago:university of chicago press,1999)。
19.friedman,guarding life's dark secrets.
20.因此在19世纪,敲诈勒索成了犯罪——为了惩罚那些打算破坏精英名誉的人。参见friedman,guarding life's dark secrets,81-100,132-133。
21.类似的思路也许还有助于解释,为什么媒体长期以来自愿进行自我审查。流行报纸有着“低俗新闻”之名,行径厚颜无耻,热衷报道丑闻,但其实它们也进行大量自我审查——比如是否报道国家领导人的健康问题。格罗弗·克利夫兰(grover cleveland)总统曾私下做过癌症手术,但此事并无一字见报。见matthew algeo,the president is a sick man(chicago:chicago review press,2011)。富兰克林·罗斯福的健康问题几乎完全秘而不宣;大众从未见过他坐着轮椅。总统任期的最后几年,他的身体状况每况愈下,但此事也从未见诸报端。见hugh c.gallagher,fdr's splendid deception(new york:dodd,mead,1985);steven lomazow and eric fettmann,fdr's deadly secret(new york:public affairs,2009)。同样地,在尘埃落定之前,英国报纸也从未报道爱德华八世与一位美国离婚女士纠缠不清。肯尼迪总统的风流韵事也未曝光。当然,所有这些往事都随风而逝。现如今,总统打个喷嚏都会在天台上进行现场直播。在英国,媒体对王室成员行为举止缄口不言的做法,也同样成为昨日黄花。
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22.见cheree carlson,the crimes of womanhood:defining femininity in a court of law(urbana:university of chicago press,2009),110。1871年,在轰动一时的劳拉·费尔审判中,检方声称劳拉不是个真正的女人,她是“男性化的”(此语并无恭维之意);她也不是位纯洁纤巧的虔诚女性,实际上,她是个邪恶女魔。见carole haber,the trials of laura fair(chapel hill:university of north carolina press,2013),49-78。
23.在奥斯卡·王尔德的小说《道连·格雷的肖像》(1891年)里也有大致类似的主题;画像反映了格雷邪恶的罪犯人格,画中人渐渐老去,模样丑恶不堪;而格雷自己的皮相则一直青春永驻。
24.robert n.bellah et al.,habits of the heart:individualism and commitment in american life,3d ed.(berkeley:university of california press,2008).
25.这一主题可参见lawrence m.friedman,“true detective,” in studies in law,politics,and society,susan s.silbey and austin sarat,eds.,14:9(bingley,uk:emerald group publishing limited,1994);lawrence m.friedman and issachar rosen-zvi,“illegal fictions:mystery novels and the popular image of crime,” ucla law review 48(2001):1,411。关于悬疑小说的历史和分析,有着大量文献。如t.j.binyon,murder will out:the detective in fiction(oxford:oxford university press,1989);julian symons,bloody murder(harmondsworth,uk:viking,1985);carl d.malmgren,anatomy of murder:mystery,detective and crime fiction(bowling green,ohio:bowling green state university popular press,2001);haia shpayer-makov,the ascent of the detective:pol sleuths in victorian and edwardian england(oxford:oxford university press,2011)。人们总会找到某本早于19世纪时空的书或者故事,然后(后知后觉地)将它们归类于“悬疑小说”,并认为此书才是这类小说的起源。但从现实角度出发,悬疑小说作为一种文学类型,在19世纪上半叶方才兴起;至于其广为流行,则是19世纪中晚期的事。
26.raymond paul,who murdered mary rogers?(englewood cliffs,n.j.:pren-t-hall,1971),1.
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27.案件和媒体报道在andie tucher的froth and scum:truth,beauty,good-ness,and the ax murder in america's first mass medium(chapel hill:university of north carolina press,1994)有所讨论。
28.参见daniel staer,the beautiful cigar girl:mary rogers,edgar allan poe,and the invention of murder(new york:dutton,2006),287-308。玛丽·罗杰之死可能与堕胎失败有关,但这无法解释她为何是被勒死的。另一个对此案的分析可见amy gilman srebnick,the mysterious death of mary rogers:sex and culture in nineteenth-century new york(new york:oxford university press,1995).也可以参见raymond paul,who murdered mary rogers?(englewood cliffs,n.j.:prent-hall,1971)。
29.小说以查尔斯·菲利克斯(charles felix)的笔名发表,2012年又发行了新版。
30.see,for example,michael lesy,wisconsin death trip(new york:panthe-on,1973);cheri l.farnsworth,murder and mayhem in st.lawrence county(charleston,s.c.:history press,2010).
31.我在此坦陈,自己也属于“悬疑小说”浩浩荡荡的作者大军中的一员。我笔下的“侦探”是位专攻遗嘱与信托事务的郊区律师,名字叫法兰克·梅。“法兰克·梅编年史”的背景是旧金山湾区。
32.james d.mccabe,jr.,lights and shadows of new york life;or the sights and sensations of the great city(new york:farrar,straus and giroux,1970),316.
33.该词汇见于《牛津英语辞典》的某期增补,引自1849年路易斯安那州的一份报纸;赫尔曼·梅尔维尔(herman melville)的小说《诈骗犯:一张面具》(the confidence man:a masquerade)出版于1857年。
34.helen campbell,darkness and daylight,or lights and shadows of new york life(hartford,conn.:n.p.,1896),728-729.
35.karen halttunen,“ ‘domestic differences’:competing narratives of wom-anhood in the murder trial of lucretia chapman,” in the culture of sentiment:race,gender,and sentimentality in nineteenth-century america,ed.shirley samuel(new york:oxford university press,1992),39 .see also karen halttunen,confidence men and painted woman:a study of middle-class culture in america,1830-1870(new haven:yale university press,1982).
36.“a rank skin,” national pol gazette,june 19,1880.
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37.official secrets act,52 & 53 vict.ch.52(1889).
38.david a.t.stafford,“spies and gentlemen:the birth of the british spy no-vel,1893-1914,” victorian studies 24(1981):489.
39.有关于敲诈勒索在英国的早期迹象,可参见angus mclaren,sexual blackmail:a modern history(cambridge,mass.:harvard university press,2002)。
40.new york times,january 14,1916.
41.关于警察力量的崛起,可参见lawrence m.friedman,crime and punish-ment in american history(new york:basicbooks,1993),67-71。
42.引自某份侦探工作描述(毫无疑问是夸大其辞);参见george s.mcwatters,knots untied:or,ways and by-ways in the hidden life of american detectives(hartford,conn.:j.b.burr and hyde,1873),648-649,第648至649页。mcwatters加了一句,“罪犯阶级”变得“狡诈不已……”,“普通的执法官员已经很难对付他们”。(mcwatters,knots untied,650)19世纪关于侦探的文献相当丰富,其中有些作者本身就做过侦探,麦克华特斯正是如此。还可参见haia shpayer-makov,the ascent of the detective:pol sleuths in victorian and edwardian england(oxford:oxford university press,2011).
43.angus mclaren,a prescription for murder:the victorian serial killings of dr.thomas neill cream(1993)。被告没有出庭。事实上,在19世纪的英国,重大案件中的被告是不出庭的。他的律师进行了一场英勇激烈但徒劳无功的辩护——不过,律师并未以被告可能精神失常为由进行辩护。这个理由在有罪裁决做出后才提出来,但是也未成功。见mclaren,a prescription for murder,54-60。
44.darnell m.hunt,o.j.simpson facts and fictions(cambridge,uk:cam-bridge university press),196.此人也提及了“将成就卓越的黑人拉下马的阴谋”(hunt,o.j.simpson,210)。
45.还有更加极端的说法,其中之一认为某个白人至上团体实施了谋杀行为,然后设计陷害o.j.辛普森,以引发种族战争。辛普森成为了“这个邪恶阴谋的目标”,只因他的妻子妮可是个“种族叛徒”;她身为白人,却嫁给了非洲裔美国人。hunt,o.j.simpson,40。
46.在苏格兰,“无罪”之外还有一个选项:“无法证明有罪”。被告免于惩罚,但洗脱不了嫌疑。这是威尔基·柯林斯(wilkie collins)的小说《法律与淑女》【the law and the lady(london:chatto & windus,1875)】中的关键情节。
47.new york times,february 11,1997.
第十二章 进入媒体视野
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1.see patricia cline cohen,the murder of helen jewett(new york:alfred a.knopf,1998).
2.see andie tucher,froth and scum:truth,beauty,goodness,and the ax murder in america's first mass medium(chapel hill:university of north carolina press,1994).
3.那些价格低廉、耸人听闻的报纸,报道对象并不限于犯罪。在19世纪40年代,“闪光灯”式的小报一度盛行,专门报道妓院、妓女和体育活动。见patricia cline cohen,timothy j.gilfoyle,and helen lefkowitz horowitz,the flash press:sporting male weeklies in 1840s new york(chicago:university of chicago press,2008)。《全美警务公报》也报道体育新闻,特别是和拳击相关的新闻。
4.see,for example,trial for the murder of mr .white(salem:ives & ives,1830),ii;trial of prof.john w.webster(1850),available at ://openli-brary/.
5.关于“低俗新闻”如何兴起,可参见helen mac-gill hughes,news and the human interest story(chicago:university of chicago press,1940),特别是第九章,“sensationalism and the yellow press”。
6.“哭泣的姐妹”的一个范例,可见giles fowler,deaths on pleasant street:the ghastly enigma of colonel swope and doctor hyde(kirksville,mo.:truman state university press,2009),162ff.,关于winifred black的著作讨论。
7.see trevor d.dryer,“ ‘all the news that's fit to print’:the new york times,‘yellow’ journalism,and the criminal trial 1898-1902,” nevada law journal 8(2008):541,568.
8.see paul collins,the murder of the century:the gilded age crime that scan-dalized a city & sparked the tabloid wars(new york:crown,2011).
9.new york times,august 2,1898.
10.比如nicole rafter,shots in the mirror:crime films and society(oxford:oxford university press,2000)。第四章,第93—115页专门讨论了法庭电影。
11.她被无罪释放了;见lawrence m.friedman,guarding life's dark secrets(stanford:stanford university press,2007),216-219;加布里埃莱·达利(后来她嫁给了某个姓达利的人)起诉了制片商,此案是起颇有名气的加州案件,即melvin v.reid,121 cal.app.285,297 pac.91(1931)。
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12.12 angry men(united artists,1957)当然,这部著名电影并没有展示真正的庭审场景:所有的事情都发生在陪审室中。
13.anatomy of a murder(columbia pictures,1959).
14.stig hjarvard,“the mediatization of society:a theory of the media as agents of social and cultural change,” nordicom review 29,no.2(2008):105,113.
15.gianpetro mazzoleni and winfried schulz,“ ‘mediatization’ of politics:a challenge for democracy?” political communication 16(1999):247,250.
16.richard l.fox and robert w.van sickel,tabloid just:criminal just in an age of media frenzy(boulder:lynne rienner,2001)第3页。他们对“花边小报式正义”的定义包含三个元素。首先,“媒体的教育让位于娱乐功能”(但这并不是什么新鲜事);其次,“媒体的迷狂之举……围绕着……法律程序”;最后,“关注此案的公众……见证了法律的艰辛历程,并将此作为理解与评判刑事司法过程的手段”。见该书第4至5页。
17.fox and van sickel,tabloid just,54.
18.见本书第99—100页(边码)。
19.greg merritt,room 1219:the life of fatty arbuckle,the mysterious death of virginia rappe,and the scandal that changed hollywood(chicago:chicago review press,2013),82 .
20.richard ford在最近的“耶拿六人”(jena 6)案中持此观点。2006年12月,在路易斯安那州耶拿的一所高中,六名黑人少年被控袭击了一名白人学生。随后发生的审判本身并未拖延,也不是轰动事件。但此后“耶拿六人”开始变得举国瞩目。媒体将这个审判报道为刑事司法中歧视非洲裔美国人的典型代表。被告被描述成品行良好的年轻人,身处在偏执的红脖社区(美国俚语,指严重歧视黑人的南方乡巴佬——译者注)中。刑事司法中的种族歧视确实存在,但是“耶拿六人”案的情况被严重扭曲了。事实情况更加微妙和矛盾。在仔细观察之后,偏见和偏执渐渐散去,区分英雄和恶棍却更加困难。见richard thomp-son ford,rights gone wrong(new york:farrar,straus and giroux,2011),3-9;richard thompson ford,“the wrong poster children:why the jena 6 protests have gone awry,” slate ,september 24,2007,available at ://www.slate.com。
21.怀特的辩护理由是行为能力下降,其要点则在于他患有严重抑郁症。某位心理学家曾经顺便说过,大量食用垃圾食品可能是抑郁的症状之一,也有可能加重抑郁。见carol pogash,“myth of the ‘twinkie defense,’ ” san francisco chronicle,november 23,2003。
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22.christian delage,caught on camera(philadelphia:university of pennsylva-nia press,2014),本书详细论述了这个过程。
23.ray surette,media,crime,and criminal just:images,realities,and pol-icies,3d ed.(belmont,calif.:thomson/wadsworth,2007),135.
24.381 u.s.532(1965).
25.引自robert d.macfadden,“billie sol estes,texas con man whose fall shook up washington,dies at 88,” new york times,may 14,2013。
26.沃伦法官认为,“对刑事审判进行电视转播,其本身就否定了正当程序”(381 u.s.at 552,沃伦法官的协同意见书)。有四位大法官持不同意见。反对者之一斯图亚特法官认为,尽管“将电视转播引进法庭的政策……非常不明智”,“有碍法庭固有的尊严”,但他本人及同事“不能将这种个人意见提升为宪法性规则”(381 u.s.at 601-02,斯图亚特法官的不同意见书)。
27.chandler v.florida,449 u.s.560(1981).
28.bert pryor et al.,“the florida experiment:an analysis of on-the-scene responses to cameras in the courtroom” ,southern speech communication journal 45(1979):12.并不是所有人都认为摄像机无害的;至于使用摄像机是不是“一种明智可取的做法”,50.9%的人给出肯定答案,24%给出否定答案,还有25%则不太确定。陪审员的意见就更加不确定了:43%的人认为摄像机是可取的,21%认为不是,还有35%则不能确定(pryor et al.,“the florida experiment,”21)。
29.sheppard v.maxwell,384 u.s.333(1966).
30.法规和条文摘自mlrc 50-state survey:media privacy and related law 2011-2012(new york:media law resource center,2011)。
31.kyu ho youm,“cameras in the courtroom in the twenty-first century:the u.s.supreme court learning from abroad?” brigham young university law review 6(2012):1,989.
32.adam liptak,“bucking a trend,supreme court justs reject video cover-age,” new york times,february 18,2013.一些联邦上诉法院允许在上诉辩论阶段使用摄像机;在2011年,司法委员会批准了一项为期三年的试点,但是仅仅针对民事审判,而且必须取得法官与双方当事人的同意。kyu youm,“cameras in the courtroom,” 2003.
206
33.kyu youm,“cameras in the courtroom.”
34.paul thaler,the watchful eye:american just in the age of the television trial(westport,conn.:praeger,1994),34.
35.数百万美国人观看了日间的《法官》节目;近年来,“朱迪法官”成了最受欢迎的日间电视节目。但是她的案件是民事小案。“朱迪法官”当然不是真的法官(尽管她做过法官);而且这些“案件”比晚间的法庭电视剧还要远离现实。见lawrence m.friedman,“judge judy's just,” berkeley j.of entertain-ment and sports law 1(2012):124。
36.thaler,the watchful eye,116.
37.thaler,the watchful eye,118,186.
38.ray surette认为法院欢迎电视,是想借此来抵消“公众”对法院工作的“负面意见”;见surette,media,crime,and criminal just,136。摄像机“可以展示公正司法与程序正义”。同时,“刑事司法程序的阴暗面”(比如辩诉交易)“即可远离大众视野”。
39.harold mendelsohn and h.t.spetnagel,“entertainment as a sociological en-terprise,” in the entertainment function of television,ed.percy h.tannenbaum(hillsdale,n.j.:erlbaum associates,1980),13.
40.尼尔·波兹曼著《娱乐至死:电视节目产业时代的公共话语》(纽约,维京出版社,1985年版,第87页)【neil postman,amusing ourselves to death:public discourse in the age of
business(new york:viking,1985),87】。他写道,“无论如何描述,无论角度为何,首要理念仍然是:它的存在是为了我们的娱乐和愉悦”。
41.leo bogart,“television news as entertainment,” in the entertainment func-tion of television ,209.互联网——通过网站、博客、社交网络等方式——未来可能会取代电视,成为主要的新闻来源。也许已经如此了。
42.kurt andersen,“the culture industry,‘entertainer-in-chief,’ ”new yorker,february 16,1998.
43.robert n.bellah et al.,habits of the heart:individualism and commitment in american life,3d ed.(berkeley:university of california press,2007),150.
44.弗朗西斯·福特·科波拉执导的《教父》于1972年面世,获得极大成功;《教父》第二部于1974年问世,《黑道家族》是一部广受欢迎的电视剧集,上映于1999年至2007年之间。
207
45.nicole rafter,shots in the mirror:crime films and society(oxford:oxford university press,2000),9-10.
46.jack katz,“what makes crime ‘news’?” media,culture & society 9(1987):47.
47.geoffrey o’ brien在the fall of the house of walworth:a tale of madness and murder in gilded age america(new york:henry holt and co.,2010)一书中讲述了这个故事。
48.o’ brien,the fall of the house of walworth,188.
49.los angeles times,september 24,1921.根据这则报道,一名叫做阿尔弗雷德·德姆纳切的侍者证实宾馆中开了“狂饮派对”,并描述了这名濒临死亡的女士衣衫不整。
50.douglas perry,the girls of murder city:fame,lust,and the beautiful killers who inspired chicago(new york:viking,2010).
51.《一日皇后》节目于1945年至1964年之间在广播和电视上播出,特别受欢迎;同样受欢迎的节目还有《偷拍镜头》,从20世纪40年代末一直延续到2004年。《鲍伊少校的业余爱好者时间》是1934年到1945年期间的重要广播节目;它后来被《正宗的业余爱好者时间》取代,并一直以各种形式播放到1992年。
52.james d.livingston,arsenic and clam chowder:murder in gilded age new york(albany:state university of new york press,2010).
53.“new t.v.spots assail dukakis on furloughs,” associated press,october 21,1988.
54.可参见franklin zimring,the city that became safe:new york's lessons for urban crime and its control(oxford:oxford university press,2012)一书中的讨论。
55.恐怖袭击可能是例外,或者至少公众会这么想。
56.当然,引注出自米兰达诉亚里桑那州案【miranda v.arizona,384 u.s.436(1966)】。在其他论述之外,此案判决坚持认为,必须告知被捕并将要接受询问之人,其有权保持沉默。
57.对于这起丑闻的意义和社会影响,可参见ari adut,on scandal:moral disturbances in society,politics,and art(cambridge,uk:cambridge university press,2008)。
58.carol ballentine,“sulfanilamide disaster,” fda consumer magazine,june 1981.
59.“smog linked to 18 deaths in day and hospital jam,in donora,pa.,”new york times,october 31,1948.死亡人数后来上升了;见“steel company pays $235,000 to settle $4,643'000 in donora smogdeath suits,”new york times,april 18,1951。
60.该部法律的最早版本于1994年通过,是对幼童梅根·康卡谋杀案的回应。该法编号为njsa 2c:7-1ff。
61.见美国司法部全国性侵罪犯公开网站://www.nsopw.gov/core/publicregistrysites.aspx。此处引用的宾夕法尼亚州法律条款为42 pa.c.s.sec.9798(b),即邻居必须在“总警长获知暴力性侵罪犯释放日期及住所信息之日起五日内,及其他执法官员获知之日起七日内”获得通知。
62.see “5 years after jessica lunord's death,florida revisits sex-offender laws,” miami herald,february 24,2010.“杰西卡法”已经编纂入《佛罗里达州法典》第800章4条。
63.加州刑法典第667条。最高法院在尤因诉加利福尼亚州【ewing v.california,538 u.s.11(2003)】案件中支持这一立法的有效性。“三振出局法”后来被2012年的第36号议案修改,其严苛程度有所降低。
64.usa patriot act,public law 107-56,october 26,2001.这些案件中包括了在本书第32页(边码)提及的约翰·沃克·林德案件。
65.alex kozinsky and robert johnson,“of cameras and courtrooms,” fordham intellectual property,media,and entertainment law journal 20(2010):1107,1133;对这一名言的典型引用见alfred n.delahaye,“the case of bruno hauptmann,” in the press on trial:crimes and trials as media events,ed.lloyd chiasson,jr.,117-130(westport,conn.:greenwood,1997),117,但一如既往地没有标明出处。
66.russell b.porter,“hauptmann put to death for killing lindbergh baby,”new york times,april 3,1936.